Fort De Châtillon (Paris), Fort De Châtillon
The Fort de Châtillon was a fortification located about south of Paris in the communes of Châtillon-sous-Bagneux and Fontenay-aux-Roses. It was built in 1874 and was razed beginning in 1957, making way for expansion of the French nuclear research facility at Fontenay-aux-Roses. The fort was named for the town it was designed to protect, Châtillon-sous-Bagneux, but the greater portion of the site is actually within Fontenay-aux-Roses. The main entry and the portions in Châtillon were destroyed at the end of the Second World War. History The site was first fortified during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, when the redoubt of Châtillon was built by the inhabitants of the town. The works allowed the French to slow the Prussian advance on the capital and was the scene of violent combat. After the war the site was selected for further fortification as part of the Séré de Rivières system ring of fortifications around Paris. Construction on the new pentagonal fort started in ...
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Fortifications Of Paris In The 19th And 20th Centuries
The fortifications of Paris in the 19th and 20th centuries comprise: *The Thiers Wall, surrounding the city of Paris, and farther from the city, *The detached forts and their complementary fieldworks. They were built in two stages: *1840–1845: the Thiers Wall and the first ring of forts, about five kilometers from the city; *1874–1885: the second ring of forts, about twenty kilometers from the city. From a military point of view, Paris is a fortified camp situated in Paris Basin, a basin. During the 19th century, both Prussian invasions (1814–15 and 1870) saw the bombardment of Paris from the surrounding heights. Fortifications were extended outwards after each invasion as the range of artillery continued to develop, in order to deny the use of the heights to the enemy. Chronology Louis XIV 1670 The king demolishes the walls of Wall of Charles V, Paris, Charles V and Louis XIII. Paris becomes an open city and remains so for two centuries. 1689 Vauban recommends th ...
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Jean Hérold-Paquis
Jean Auguste Hérold, better known as Jean Hérold-Paquis (4 February 1912 – 11 October 1945) was a French journalist who fought for the Nationalists during the Spanish Civil War. In 1940 he was appointed as Delegate for Propaganda in the Hautes-Alpes department by the Vichy authorities. From 1942, he broadcast daily news reports on Radio Paris, in which he regularly called for the "destruction" of the United Kingdom. His catch phrase was ''"England, like Carthage, shall be destroyed!"''. He was a member of the French Popular Party, better known as the PPF, one of the two main Fascist parties under the Occupation. After the Liberation, he fled to Germany and then Switzerland. In 1945, he was handed over to the French, and subsequently executed for treason on 11 October 1945 at the Fort de Châtillon. See also * Francis Stuart *Axis Sally *Lord Haw-Haw *Tokyo Rose *Hanoi Hannah Trịnh Thị Ngọ (; 1931 – 30 September 2016), also known as Thu Hương and Hanoi ...
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Nuclear Research Institutes
Nuclear may refer to: Physics Relating to the nucleus of the atom: *Nuclear engineering *Nuclear physics *Nuclear power *Nuclear reactor *Nuclear weapon *Nuclear medicine *Radiation therapy *Nuclear warfare Mathematics *Nuclear space *Nuclear operator *Nuclear congruence *Nuclear C*-algebra Biology Relating to the nucleus of the cell: * Nuclear DNA Society *Nuclear family, a family consisting of a pair of adults and their children Music * "Nuclear" (band), group music. * "Nuclear" (Ryan Adams song), 2002 *"Nuclear", a song by Mike Oldfield from his ''Man on the Rocks'' album * ''Nu.Clear'' (EP) by South Korean girl group CLC See also *Nucleus (other) *Nucleolus *Nucleation *Nucleic acid *Nucular ''Nucular'' is a common, proscribed pronunciation of the word "nuclear". It is a rough phonetic spelling of . The ''Oxford English Dictionary''s entry dates the word's first published appearance to 1943. Dictionary notes This is one of two con ...

Nuclear History Of France
Nuclear may refer to: Physics Relating to the nucleus of the atom: * Nuclear engineering *Nuclear physics *Nuclear power *Nuclear reactor *Nuclear weapon *Nuclear medicine *Radiation therapy *Nuclear warfare Mathematics *Nuclear space *Nuclear operator *Nuclear congruence *Nuclear C*-algebra Biology Relating to the nucleus of the cell: * Nuclear DNA Society * Nuclear family, a family consisting of a pair of adults and their children Music * "Nuclear" (band), group music. * "Nuclear" (Ryan Adams song), 2002 *"Nuclear", a song by Mike Oldfield from his ''Man on the Rocks'' album * ''Nu.Clear'' (EP) by South Korean girl group CLC See also *Nucleus (other) *Nucleolus * Nucleation * Nucleic acid *Nucular ''Nucular'' is a common, proscribed pronunciation of the word "nuclear". It is a rough phonetic spelling of . The ''Oxford English Dictionary''s entry dates the word's first published appearance to 1943. Dictionary notes This is one of two con ...

Nuclear Technology In France
Nuclear may refer to: Physics Relating to the nucleus of the atom: *Nuclear engineering *Nuclear physics *Nuclear power *Nuclear reactor *Nuclear weapon *Nuclear medicine *Radiation therapy *Nuclear warfare Mathematics *Nuclear space *Nuclear operator *Nuclear congruence *Nuclear C*-algebra Biology Relating to the nucleus of the cell: * Nuclear DNA Society *Nuclear family, a family consisting of a pair of adults and their children Music * "Nuclear" (band), group music. * "Nuclear" (Ryan Adams song), 2002 *"Nuclear", a song by Mike Oldfield from his ''Man on the Rocks'' album * ''Nu.Clear'' (EP) by South Korean girl group CLC See also *Nucleus (other) *Nucleolus *Nucleation *Nucleic acid *Nucular ''Nucular'' is a common, proscribed pronunciation of the word "nuclear". It is a rough phonetic spelling of . The ''Oxford English Dictionary''s entry dates the word's first published appearance to 1943. Dictionary notes This is one of two con ...

Fortifications Of Paris
A fortification is a military construction or building designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is also used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from Latin ''fortis'' ("strong") and ''facere'' ("to make"). From very early history to modern times, defensive walls have often been necessary for cities to survive in an ever-changing world of invasion and conquest. Some settlements in the Indus Valley civilization were the first small cities to be fortified. In ancient Greece, large stone walls had been built in Mycenaean Greece, such as the ancient site of Mycenae (famous for the huge stone blocks of its 'cyclopean' walls). A Greek '' phrourion'' was a fortified collection of buildings used as a military garrison, and is the equivalent of the Roman castellum or English fortress. These constructions mainly served the purpose of a watch tower, to guard certain roads, passes, and borders. Though smaller than a real fortress, they acted ...
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Boulogne-sur-Mer
Boulogne-sur-Mer (; pcd, Boulonne-su-Mér; nl, Bonen; la, Gesoriacum or ''Bononia''), often called just Boulogne (, ), is a coastal city in Northern France. It is a sub-prefecture of the department of Pas-de-Calais. Boulogne lies on the Côte d'Opale, a touristic stretch of French coast on the English Channel between Calais and Normandy, and the most visited location in the region after the Lille conurbation. Boulogne is its department's second-largest city after Calais, and the 183rd-largest in France.Téléchargement du fichier d'ensemble des populations légales en 2017

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Besançon
Besançon (, , , ; archaic german: Bisanz; la, Vesontio) is the prefecture of the department of Doubs in the region of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté. The city is located in Eastern France, close to the Jura Mountains and the border with Switzerland. Capital of the historic and cultural region of Franche-Comté, Besançon is home to the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté regional council headquarters, and is an important administrative centre in the region. It is also the seat of one of the fifteen French ecclesiastical provinces and one of the two divisions of the French Army. In 2019 the city had a population of 117,912, in a metropolitan area of 280,701, the second in the region in terms of population. Established in a meander of the river Doubs, the city was already important during the Gallo-Roman era under the name of ''Vesontio'', capital of the Sequani. Its geography and specific history turned it into a military stronghold, a garrison city, a political centre, and a religious c ...
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Châtillon-le-Duc
Châtillon-le-Duc () is a commune in the Doubs department in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region in eastern France. Population See also * Communes of the Doubs department The following is a list of the 571 communes of the Doubs department of France. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2020):Communes of Doubs {{Doubs-geo-stub ...
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Institut De Radioprotection Et De Sûreté Nucléaire
The French ''Institut de radioprotection et de sûreté nucléaire'' (IRSN) ("Radioprotection and Nuclear Safety Institute") located in Fontenay-aux-Roses is a public official establishment with an industrial and commercial aspect (EPIC) created by the AFSSE Act ( - French Agency of Sanitary Environmental Security) and by February 22, 2002 decreed n°2002-254. The IRSN is placed under the conjoint authority of the Defence minister, the Environmental minister, the Industry minister and the Health and Research minister. The IRSN gathers more than 1500 experts and researchers from the Institut de protection et de sûreté nucléaire (IPSN - Protection and Nuclear Safety Institute) and the Office de protection contre les rayonnements ionisants (OPRI - Ionizing radiations protection office). These scientists are thus competent on nuclear safety, radioactive protection and control of nuclear and sensitive materials. The IRSN realize investigations, expertise assessments and studies o ...
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Tokamak De Fontenay Aux Roses
The Tokamak de Fontenay-aux-Roses (TFR) was the first French tokamak, built in a research centre of the French Atomic Energy Commission (CEA) in Fontenay-aux-Roses, a commune in the southwestern suburbs of Paris, France. Roughly the same size as the contemporary Soviet T-3 and American Symmetrical Tokamak, but had a larger internal plasma volume and a much more powerful power supply that drove plasma currents up to 400,000 Amps for as long as half a second. Completed in 1973, it remained the world's most powerful tokamak until 1976 when it was surpassed by the Princeton Large Torus. Among the major discoveries made on TFR was the concept of "disruptions", potentially damaging events that eject the plasma from the center and lead to an event known as "runaway electrons". In 1975, such an event burned holes through the vacuum vessel, requiring extensive repairs. It was followed by Tore Supra WEST, Tungsten (chemical symbol "W") Environment in Steady-state Tokamak, (formerly Tore S ...
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Tokamak
A tokamak (; russian: токамáк; otk, 𐱃𐰸𐰢𐰴, Toḳamaḳ) is a device which uses a powerful magnetic field to confine plasma in the shape of a torus. The tokamak is one of several types of magnetic confinement devices being developed to produce controlled thermonuclear fusion power. , it was the leading candidate for a practical fusion reactor. Tokamaks were initially conceptualized in the 1950s by Soviet physicists Igor Tamm and Andrei Sakharov, inspired by a letter by Oleg Lavrentiev. The first working tokamak was attributed to the work of Natan Yavlinsky on the T-1 in 1958. It had been demonstrated that a stable plasma equilibrium requires magnetic field lines that wind around the torus in a helix. Devices like the z-pinch and stellarator had attempted this, but demonstrated serious instabilities. It was the development of the concept now known as the safety factor (labelled ''q'' in mathematical notation) that guided tokamak development; by arranging the ...
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